ShodhKosh: Journal of Visual and Performing ArtsISSN (Online): 2582-7472
READING SILAPPADIKARAM IN THE CONTEMPORARY TIMES: A STUDY OF ITS PERFORMATIVE ASPECTS Dr. Venkata Naresh Burla 1 1 Assistant Professor, Department of
Performing Arts, Central University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India 2 Assistant
Professor of Folklore, Department of Anthropology and Tribal Studies, Central
University of Jharkhand, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
1. INTRODUCTION Silappadikaram (the tale of an
anklet) is one of the most important works of
classical Tamil literature, composed by Ilanko Adikal in the 5th or 6th century
CE, which is considered the Sangam period of Tamil literature Parthasarathy (2004/1993).
The epic
poem is believed to have been written in the city of Madurai, which was a center of Tamil culture and literature at that time. The
name Silappadikaram means "the story of
the anklet" in Tamil, referring to the incident that triggers the main
events of the poem. It is a narrative poem that tells the story of Kannagi, a
virtuous woman who seeks justice for her husband Kovalan's wrongful execution.
The epic is divided into three parts: the Puhar, the Madurai, and the Vanchi
episodes. Silappadikaram serves as a
valuable source for understanding the social and cultural history of ancient Tamil
Nadu by providing a vivid portrayal of the customs, traditions, values, and challenges.In the epic, the rigid
social hierarchies prevalent in ancient Tamil Nadu are depicted, including the
division of society into different castes and the norms and customs associated
with them. It highlights the challenges faced by individuals who navigate these
hierarchies, such as Kannagi's struggle for justice despite her social status.
The text offers glimpses into the roles and expectations of women in ancient
Tamil society. Kannagi exemplifies the idealized virtues of a devoted wife, but
she also demonstrates resilience and agency in seeking justice for the death of
her husband. Silappadikaram provides insights
into trade, commerce, and agrarian practices in ancient Tamil Nadu. A narrative
follows Kovalan, a merchant, and emphasizes the importance of trade routes and
markets to the economy of the region. There are various cultural practices depicted
in the epic, including dance, music, and religious rituals, shedding light on
the cultural fabric of ancient Tamil society. As an example, the Madurai
Meenakshi Temple and its festivities play a prominent role in the narrative,
reflecting the importance of religious institutions in people's lives. However,
this paper aims to discuss the importance of the text in the modern context,
specifically within the framework of performing arts, encompassing both folk
and modern theatrical forms. The paper explores the theatrical quality of the
text and the performative elements found within, highlighting their
significance in addressing contemporary questions pertaining to the performing
arts. Moreover, this paper exemplifies an interdisciplinary approach to
classical Tamil text that resonates profoundly in today's multifaceted world of
artistic expression and cultural inquiry. Silappadikaram explores a
wide range of themes, encompassing love, loyalty, justice, and fate. The
central theme of the epic revolves around the pursuit of justice. The narrative
follows the story of Kovalan, a young merchant, and his union with the virtuous
Kannagi. Despite his love for the courtesan Madhavi, Kovalan's life takes a
tragic turn when he is falsely accused of theft by a deceitful goldsmith. The
goldsmith, who had stolen the queen's anklet, accuses
Kovalan and convinces the king of Madurai to execute him. In a turn of events,
Kannagi arrives in Maturai as a widow and proves
Kovalan's innocence. Filled with grief and anger, she tears off one of her
breasts and hurls it towards the burning city of Maduri. Kannagi's pursuit of
justice ultimately leads to the downfall of the king and the city itself. An important
underlying theme in Silappadikaram is the
power of fate. The poem highlights the belief that human actions are influenced
by destiny and that even the most virtuous individuals can face misfortune.
However, it also suggests that righteous actions can alleviate the impact of
fate and eventually lead to redemption. Silappadikaram holds the
significance as a Tamil literary work and serves as a valuable resource for
comprehending the culture, society, and history of ancient Tamil Nadu. Notably,
the poem provides a captivating portrayal of gender roles and relationships. It
presents a nuanced perspective on the position of women in ancient Tamil
society, depicting them as active and independent individuals rather than
passive dependents under male guardianship. Kannagi, the poem's female
protagonist, emerges as a resilient and fearless woman who ardently fights for
justice, ultimately toppling a corrupt king. In contrast, Kovalan is portrayed
as impulsive and reckless, driven by his pursuit of pleasure and wealth.
Moreover, Silappadikaram offers insights into
the intricate social hierarchies prevalent in ancient Tamil society. It
showcases a diverse range of social classes, from commoners to royalty,
illuminating how individuals navigate their positions within these hierarchies.
For instance, Kovalan, being a prosperous merchant, utilizes his wealth and
influence to curry favor
with the ruling elite. Conversely, Kannagi, a commoner, employs her intellect
and strength to challenge the corrupt king and bring about justice. The poem also grants glimpses into the religious and
cultural practices of ancient Tamil society. It underscores the central role of
religion and spirituality in the lives of ordinary people, highlighting their
efforts to forge a connection with the divine in their daily existence.
Furthermore, Silappadikaram underscores the
significance of art and literature in ancient Tamil society, showcasing how
these expressive forms were employed to convey moral messages and reflect the
prevailing values of the era. In addition to its rich socio-political and
economic elements, Silappadikaram holds
historical importance as one of the world's oldest surviving epic poems. It
provides a detailed account of the Pandyan, Chera,
and Chola dynasties that once flourished in ancient Tamil Nadu. That is, all
the three ancient Tamil kingdoms have been found mentioned in the narrative
text not merely as casual reference but intertwined with the story - story
begins from Poompukar, the capital of the Cholas,
then it moves towards Madurai and ends in the land of Cheras
land. The division of the text itself is seen as evidence for it that while Puharkkandam (Puhar Chapter) mentions the events that
happened in the city of Puhar that falls under the Chola kingdom, Maduraikkanadam (Madurai Chapter) portrays the events that
happened in the city of Madurain in the Pandya
kingdom and Vanchikkandam (Vanchi chapter) presents
the events that happen in the Chera kingdom. Subramanyam (1977), Noble (1990), Dikshitar (1978), Dikshitar (1939), Kapoor (2023). However, this
study primarily focuses on the performance perspective of the poem, seeking to
delve into its performative aspects and implications. 2. Themes and
Significance of Silappadikaram Love, separation, and the acquisition or loss of power are
recurring themes in Indian classical dramas, shared by playwrights such as
Kalidasa, Bhasa, Bhavabhuti, and Shudraka,
among others. These themes serve as narrative devices to explore the human
condition and portray the challenges and struggles individuals face in their
personal and public lives. Silappadikaram,
being a significant narrative with meticulous descriptions and the
incorporation of narrative formulas, exemplifies the principles of narratology
found in modern literature. It recounts the simple yet elegant romantic
dynamics among the married couple Kovalan and Kannagi, as well as Madhavi, a
renowned dancer, and the daughter of Chitrapathy, who
becomes Kovalan's mistress. When viewing the story from a performance
perspective, Madhavi emerges as a prominent character. She is a talented dancer
who began her training at the age of five and achieved mastery by the age of
twelve. Madhavi's performance at the annual festival in Kaveripoompattinam
signifies the importance of such festivals, stage performances, and prize
distributions (where she received a Royal Medal and 1008 grams of coins), among
other elements. Kovalan falls in love with Madhavi after witnessing her
captivating performance at the annual festival, which is depicted in
contemporary popular culture such as cinema and theatrical performances. Silappadikaram holds
importance as it offers theories on the origin of dance. The talaikkol used in Madhavi's performance symbolizes
Jayanta, the son of Indra, and is a significant element of her debut public
performance, known as Arangetram (staging of first performance). The misdeeds
of Jayanta, who was cursed by sage Agastya along with celestial nymph Urvasi,
become part of the curse's ritualistic symbolism and are also incorporated into
worship practices. Silappadikaram mentions
numerous dance forms within its text, including Alliyam,
Kodukotti, Kudaj,
Kudam, Pedi, Kadayam,
Pandarangam, Mal, Tudi, Marakkal, and
Pavai. Many of these dance forms are
associated with gods and deities such as Shiva, Muruga, Kama, Durga, Krishna,
Lakshmi, and Indrani. The first six dances are performed in a standing
position: Alliyam depicts Lord Krishna's
triumph over a mad elephant, Kodukotti portrays
Lord Shiva's dance after destroying the triple cities of demons, Kudaj represents Lord Skanda's victory over demons, Kudayam is performed by Kannan after securing the
release of his grandson Anirudh from Banasura's prison, Pandarangam
illustrates Shiva's dance to entertain Brahma following his victory over the
demons' triple cities, and Mal describes the wrestling match between
Bana and Lord Krishna. The remaining five dances are performed in a lying
position: Thudi depicts Skanda's dance after
defeating the demon Suran, Kadayam portrays
Indrani's dance at the north gate of Banasura's palace, Pedu showcases
Manmathan's dance in the guise of a eunuch to secure the release of his son
Anirudh, Marakkal represents Goddess Durga's
dance with stilts when facing poisonous creatures sent by demons, and Pavai depicts Goddess Lakshmi's dance against warring
demons. Silappadikaram also makes several
references to performance-related terms such as natya (dance), ranga (stage), pindi (body
movements), varam (tune), karanam (dance sequences), and mandala
(circular formation). It is believed that that some of the dance principles
from Natyashastra were adapted for Tamil settings, as evident from the dance
terminology used in Silappadikaram. The text
also presents three types of dancers that can be compared to modern-day
classifications: kaval ganika (women guards), kalattiladumkutti (dancers in the military camp),
and adalkuttis (dancers who perform ahakkuttu or sringara
dances like padams). In this context, Kapila
Vatsyayan notes that "It appears that by the time of the Silappadikaram, the three-fold classification of
dancing girls as ganikas, kuttis,
and adalsiladi—corresponding to the later
classifications taliyilar, patiyilar,
and devaradiyal—had come into vogue" Vatsyayan (1968), 213-214. The section on Arangetram holds
importance within the text and provides detailed coverage of various elements
such as Madhavi's dance teacher's proficiency and skills, accompanists such as
singers and musicians, and crucially, stage management details. Silappadikaram mentions two distinct types of dances
based on akam and puram: Ahakuttu and Purakkuttu, respectively. Akam comprises twin concepts such as Vasai (satire) and Pugal (praise), Vettiyal
(performed before kings) and Poduviyal
(performed before ordinary people), Vari and Vari Shanti, Shanti and Vinodham, and Aryam. Shanti Kutthu is further divided into Chokkam
or Suddha nrttam
(pure dance, later known as nritta) and
incorporates the 108 karanas. Mei Kutthu, on the other hand, encompasses Desi, Vadugu, and Singalam.
PurakKutthu has three modes: Perunatai, Charyay, and Bhramari.
The inclusion of various Kutthus in Silappadikaram indicates its significance as a
text that reflects modern performance types. Furthermore, the beauty of the
text lies in Aranketrukkathai, which presents its
content in the blended mode of Iyal (prose), Isai
(music), and Natakam (drama), collectively
known as Muttamil (three forms of Tamil
language). Scholars have recognized parallels between Tamil and Sanskrit
traditions on this level. Kutthu is extensively
detailed in the text, with kravi kutthu and aaichiyar
kutthu being discussed in depth. Dance forms like
kodukotti and pandarangam
are regarded as sacred to Shiva, Tudi to Murugan, Marakal
to Kottravai, Pavai to Lakshmi, and Kadayam to
Indrani. Dance varieties such as Marakkal, Pavaikootu, and Kodukotti remain
popular till date, for example, kudamadal (Karagattam) and marakkaladal
(dummy horse dance). These dances are now classified as folk arts Vatsyayan (1968), 213-214.
Interestingly, the description of dances and koottu
is not limited to Arankettrakkathai alone; other
sections of the text mention dances performed by hunters, cowherds, and tribal
communities. Vettuvavari, popularly known as the
dance form of hunters, is depicted as Salini, born into the Maravar
clan, beginning her dance with appropriate gestures, and becoming possessed by
divinity, with her hair standing on end and hands raised aloft. She continued
to dance, moving from place to place, astonishing the foresters... she then
proclaimed these unfulfilled vows Vatsyayan (1968), 213-214. 3. Indian plays -
popular Themes The theme of love held a central position in the plays
written by playwrights like Kalidasa, Bhavabhuri, and
Bhasa, etc. Love was often portrayed as a
transformative force capable of uniting individuals, but also capable of
driving them apart. Kalidasa's play "Shakuntala" exemplifies
this theme, with the love story between King Dushyant and the hermit Shakuntala
taking centre stage. The play illustrates how love can transcend social
barriers and bring together people from different backgrounds. However, it also
emphasizes the repercussions of forgetting love and underscores the
significance of memory and remembrance in relationships. In Bhavabhuti's play
"Uttararamacharita," the
departure of Sita from Ayodhya serves as a pivotal event that leads to the
ultimate conflict between Rama and Ravana. The play delves into the emotional
turmoil experienced by Sita as she leaves her home and is compelled to adapt to
a new life in the forest. The theme of gaining or losing power emerges as
another prominent motif in classical Indian dramas. These plays often portray
the struggles individuals face when attempting to acquire or retain power,
along with the ensuing consequences. Bhasa's play
"Charudatta"
exemplifies this theme, featuring a central character who is a poor Brahmin.
After saving the life of a courtesan, he attains power and wealth. However, his
newfound authority comes at a cost, as he becomes the target of jealousy and
deceit from those around him. These themes serve to explore the human condition
and depict the challenges and struggles individuals encounter in their personal
and public lives. In addition to Sanskrit Kavya (poetry) and literary
texts from the time of Natyashastra, Silapathikaram
stands out for providing concrete evidence of a solo dancer and her art. The
poem portrays either the female protagonist or antagonist as accomplished and
trained dancers, indicating a period in which dance forms thrived. It
demonstrates the existence of patrons who supported and safeguarded the arts as
well as the artists themselves. This reflects a progressive dimension of
society that allowed women to pursue dance as a profession and showcased their
talents on public platforms. For the dance theorist and historian Mandakranta
Bose, the dance was indeed an evolving art as evident in textual references.
And for him, the dramatists and authors such as Kalidasa, Vararuci,
Bhavabhuti, Harsha, Rajasekhara, Damodara Gupta, Jayanta Bhatta, and Alamkarikas such as Dandin, Bhamaha,
Bhoja, Sharadatanaya, Sagaranandin,
etc., have used numerous terms to denote dances that utilize body movements for
the expression of ideas and emotions, and that are absent in Bharata's work -
indicating their subsequent developments, suggesting an expansion of the art of
dancing Mandakranta (2002). The Indian theatre scene has always served as an active
arena for social commentary and cultural critique. The plays written and staged
in India during the late 20th century marked a significant shift as common
individuals became the protagonists, and societal issues took centre stage.
Four plays that captured the imagination of both audiences and critics were
"Aadhe Adhure”
(Halfway House), "Ghashiram Kotwal” (Ghashiram, the chief police officer), “Hayavadana”
(Horse face/Horse headed), and "Sakharam Binder" (Sakharam, the
Binder). The rationale behind selecting "Aadhe Adhure,” "Ghashiram
Kotwal," "Hayavadana," and
"Sakharam Binder" in relation to the text lies in their thematic
depth and cultural significance. Each of these plays offers a profound
exploration of human psychology and confronts the prevalent social and cultural
challenges of their respective times. "Aadhe Adhure" delves into the complexities of familial
relationships and societal expectations; "Ghashiram
Kotwal" critiques power dynamics and corruption; "Hayavadana"
explores the intricacies of identity and desire; and "Sakharam
Binder" addresses issues of gender and personal autonomy. By analyzing these plays, the text aims to provide a
comprehensive understanding of the intersection between dramatic literature,
psychological inquiry, and socio-cultural commentary, thereby enriching the
discourse on these themes within the context of the chosen text. Each of these
plays delved into the complexities of the human psyche and delved deeply into
the social and cultural challenges of their respective times. 4. Aadhe
Adhure: The Quest for Completeness "Aadhe Adhure,"
written by Rakesh (1999), is a notable
example of a realistic modernist play. The play delves into the lives of a
middle-class family, exploring their struggles with unfulfilled aspirations,
insecurities, morality, societal norms, individual freedom, and internal
conflicts within the family unit. The protagonist, Savitri, is an ordinary
woman and mother of three who possesses a good education and puts in immense
effort but fails to provide her family with a respectable standard of living.
Dissatisfied with her life, she desperately seeks solutions to her problems,
resorting to dubious business practices, socializing with wealthy men, and
manipulating her boss to secure a job and stability for her unemployed son.
Savitri strives to balance her work and home life while enduring an abusive and
unemployed husband. Despite her relentless efforts to improve the family's
lifestyle and social status, she faces constant disappointment. Within the
family, Savitri confronts conflicts, including with her husband Mahinder. Her
son Ashok rejects the support of her boss to enter the workforce due to his
disdain for him. He spends his time flipping through magazines and randomly
tearing out images of figures like Marilyn Monroe and Audrey Hepburn. Savitri's
elder daughter Benny had left home years ago and returns to find her marriage
in turmoil. Her younger, more rebellious daughter Kinni displays precociousness
and disobedience, preoccupied with exploring adult relationships. In the play,
nearly every character is engaged in conflict with one another. After years of
coexistence, the family reaches a point where they find themselves unable to
live with or without one another Saraswat (2014). In the play,
the character Savitri experiences a deep dissatisfaction with her life and
yearns for a sense of fulfillment. "Aadhe Adhure" delves into
themes of loneliness, disillusionment, and existential angst, which were
relatively new in Indian theatre during its time. The play examines the
intricate relationships and conflicts among family members as they grapple with
finding their own identities and pursuing happiness. The confined living space
and financial struggles further intensify their tensions, resulting in
explosive arguments and bitter confrontations. Through the characters'
struggles and conflicts, the play raises poignant questions about societal
expectations, gender roles, and the true meaning of happiness and fulfillment in life. The play concludes with an open-ended
ending, allowing the audience to interpret the characters' destinies and
reflect upon the thought-provoking issues presented throughout the play. 5. Hayavadana:
A Search for Identity and desire for fulfillment The play “Hayavadana" (lit.
horse-headed) written by Girish Karnad in 1971, holds a significant place in
modern Indian literature as it delves into themes of identity, love, and
desire. Set in medieval India, the play revolves around the story of two best
friends, Devadatta and Kapila, who both develop feelings for the same woman,
Padmini, who serves as the protagonist. The power dynamics among these three
main characters serve as a crucial aspect of the play. Devadatta, a Brahmin,
possesses linguistic and poetic skills, and holds a position of power and
privilege in society. Kapila, on the other hand, is a wrestler, strong
physically but belonging to a lower caste, and lacks the same privileges as
Devadatta. Despite being married to Devadatta, Padmini becomes the object of
affection for both men, leading to a competition for her love and attention.
Padmini, caught in the middle, struggles to make a decision
for herself Karnad
(1997)."Hayavadana" offers a unique blend of myth, folktales,
and contemporary Indian society, tackling themes such as identity, love, and
the quest for fulfillment. The play also delves into
the power dynamics between men and women within society. Padmini, despite being
a strong and independent woman, finds herself constrained by the societal
expectations and limitations imposed upon women in ancient India. She is
expected to be submissive and obedient to men, without the agency to make her
own decisions. This places her in a challenging position as she navigates her
own desires and emotions while also grappling with societal norms. Another
prominent aspect of "Hayavadana" is its
exploration of the concept of identity. The play raises questions about whether
identity is determined solely by physical appearance or if it is shaped by
inner qualities such as intelligence and kindness. It also probes the influence
of social status on one's sense of self-worth. The search for completeness
emerges as another vital theme within the play. Each character embarks on a
personal quest for something that they believe will bring them a sense of
wholeness—be it love, intelligence, or physical perfection. However, they
ultimately come to realize that true completeness can only be attained through
self-acceptance, recognizing that external factors cannot provide lasting fulfillment. 6. Ghashiram
Kotwal: The Abuse of Power and the Corrupt Nature of Politics The play "Ghashiram
Kotwal," (police chief Ghasiram) written by
Vijay Tendulkar in 1972, is set in 18th-century Pune and revolves around the
story of Ghashiram, a man who ascends to power as the
kotwal (police chief) of the city. However, his corrupt and ruthless methods of
maintaining order ultimately lead to his downfall.The
drama begins by introducing the morally corrupt state of the Brahmins in Pune,
who hold positions of power. The dishonest chief of Pune, Nana Phadnavis,
visits the lavani dancer Gulabi,
where Ghashiram is employed Balsing
(2019). Ghashiram's
intellect impresses Nana. The next day, as a Brahmin, Ghashiram
attends the Peshwa's feast to collect alms. However, he faces mistreatment, is
falsely accused of pickpocketing, and is sentenced to prison by the Pune
Brahmins. This incident fuels Ghashiram's desire for
revenge. To accomplish his objective and secure the position of Kotwal from
Nana, Ghashiram trades his own teenage daughter,
Gauri. Once appointed, he enforces strict regulations on the city,
indiscriminately imprisoning individuals for minor offences. Nana turns a blind
eye to the grievances of the commoners who complain about Ghashiram,
as he is deeply infatuated with Gauri. As the situation escalates, the Brahmins
ultimately lodge a complaint with the Peshwa. The Peshwa summons Nana, who
orders Ghashiram to be killed Tendulkar (2014). The play's
protagonist, Ghashiram, undergoes a transformation
from an ordinary man to a powerful figure in society. He offers his daughter
Gauri to Nana Phadanvis in exchange for the position
of Kotwal, utilizing the corrupt system to his advantage. The play delves into
themes of power, politics, and the exploitation of power. It offers a critical
portrayal of the Peshwa regime, highlighting how the ruling class manipulates
and exploits ordinary individuals for their own gain."Ghashiram
Kotwal" serves as a potent critique of power abuse and the corrupt nature
of politics. Ghashiram's rise to the position of
kotwal is not based on merit, but rather on his willingness to engage in any
means necessary to achieve his ambitions. He resorts to bribery, blackmail, and
even murder to climb the social ladder, prioritizing his own interests over the
welfare of the people he is entrusted to serve. From its onset, the play
establishes a power dynamic between the Brahmins and non-Brahmins in Pune. Ghashiram initially faces suspicion and is treated as an outsider
by the Brahmins. However, as he gains power and influence, he exploits his
position and manipulates the system to his advantage. He employs his authority
to eliminate adversaries and solidify his position, resorting even to the
murder of a woman who rejects his advances. As Ghashiram
becomes increasingly corrupt, the play delves into the conflict between
individual desires and societal norms. Ghashiram's
insatiable thirst for power and wealth drives him to commit progressively
heinous acts, which he justifies as necessary for maintaining order in the
city. The play juxtaposes his actions with those of other characters who
attempt to resist the oppressive power structure of Pune. Nana Phadnavis, for
example, confronts Ghashiram and suffers the
consequences for challenging him. Throughout the play, Tendulkar emphasizes the
role of social and political hierarchies in perpetuating corruption and
injustice. Ghashiram's actions receive support and
protection from influential figures in the city who turn a blind eye to his
crimes as long as he serves their interests. Moreover,
the play highlights the gendered aspect of power dynamics, as Ghashiram's actions are facilitated by the subjugation of
women and the objectification of their bodies. Tendulkar (2009) 7. Sakharam
Binder: An Exploration of sexuality, power, and patriarchy "Sakharam Binder,"(Sakharam,
the Binder) the play written by Vijay Tendulkar in 1972, delves into the themes
of power, gender, and morality. The play narrates the story of Sakharam Binder,
a bookbinder who resides outside the confines of societal norms, engaging in
sexual relationships with multiple women. However, his unconventional lifestyle
leads to conflict and violence, ultimately resulting in his own downfall.
Sakharam introduces himself as an individual who has rejected traditional roles
and societal norms, striving to live life on his own terms Wadikar (2011). Sakharam's rejection
of societal norms is most evident in his relationships with women. He holds the
belief that marriage is a social construct that restricts individuals, and
instead, he seeks women who are willing to cohabit with him and fulfil his desires
without the need for marriage. Additionally, he advocates for women to break
free from the confines of traditional gender roles imposed by Indian society
and encourages their freedom of expression. Tendulkar portrays Sakharam
Binder's character issues, which predominantly revolve around violence. These
conflicts arise from interpersonal and personal relationships, vividly
reflecting the characters' tendency towards violent expressions throughout the
play. The central theme of the play revolves around the relationship between
the protagonist, Sakharam, and his seventh and eighth mistresses, Laxmi and Champa. These three characters hold pivotal roles
in the narrative, shaping its entirety. Dawood, Sakharam Binder's Muslim
friend, is a secondary character in the play, initially portrayed as composed
during the first act. However, his deceitful nature becomes evident later on as he engages in a relationship with Champa,
Sakharam's eighth mistress, betraying his friendship with Sakharam Binder.
Faujdar Shinde, Champa's husband, is similarly depicted as a violent individual
who subjects his wife to abuse while under the influence of alcohol. The play
concludes with Sakharam's downfall, as the women he has taken in depart from
his life, and the repercussions of his violent past catch up to him. These
characters are portrayed as individuals prone to various forms of violence,
including physical, psychological, political, sexual, and verbal violence Sharma
(2019). Through the character of Sakharam, Tendulkar illuminates
the significance of power in relationships and its potential to oppress and
exploit others. The women in the play bear the brunt of Sakharam's whims and
desires, underscoring the power dynamics embedded in their interactions. The
play exposes the pervasive violence and exploitation endured by women in the
name of tradition and societal norms. Moreover, it prompts to question the
responsibility of individuals in perpetuating these oppressive systems and
emphasizes the necessity for resistance and rebellion against them. The play
engenders crucial inquiries regarding the essence of human relationships and
the intricate nature of power dynamics, abuse, and gender roles within Indian
society. It challenges conventional patriarchal norms and underscores the
urgency for a more nuanced comprehension of human relationships. Silappadikaram shares common themes with "Aadhe Adhure," "Hayavadana," "Ghashiram
Kotwal," and "Sakharam Binder." These works collectively delve
into the complexities of human relationships, the repercussions of one's
actions, and the quest for fulfillment and identity. Mohan
Rakesh's play "Aadhe Adhure"
explores themes of marital discord and societal expectations. It portrays the
struggles of a middle-class Indian family and the conflicts that arise from the
husband's inability to provide for his family. Similarly, Silappadikaram
also addresses marital discord and societal expectations, depicting Kovalan's
abandonment of his wife Kannagi due to his pursuit of wealth and material
pleasures. Girish Karnad's play "Hayavadana"
delves into themes of identity and the human search for completeness. It
narrates the story of Devadatta and Kapila, two friends who both love the same
woman, Padmini. Kapila becomes consumed by his desire for Padmini and
sacrifices his own identity in a desperate attempt to win her love. Similarly, Silappadikaram portrays Kovalan as being consumed by
his desire for wealth and material pleasures, leading to his tragic downfall.
Vijay Tendulkar's play "Ghashiram Kotwal"
explores themes of political corruption and power struggles in 19th-century
India. It narrates the story of Ghasiram, a corrupt
municipal official who ascends to power through deceit and manipulation.
Similarly, Silappadikaram addresses themes of
justice and power struggles through Kannagi's quest for justice following her
husband Kovalan's wrongful execution. In "Sakharam Binder," another
play by Vijay Tendulkar, themes of gender roles and societal expectations are
examined. The play portrays Sakharam, a bookbinder who takes in and mistreats
women abandoned by their families. Similarly, Silappadikaram
presents Kannagi as a strong and independent woman who challenges societal
expectations and norms. Overall, these works collectively explore universal
themes of human relationships, consequences of actions, and the search for
completeness and identity, albeit through different cultural and historical
contexts. 8. Conclusion In general, Silappadikaram
is a profound and intricate work that provides a captivating insight into the
social and cultural norms prevalent in ancient Tamil society. By depicting
gender roles, social hierarchies, and religious and cultural practices, the
epic poem offers a nuanced and enlightening perspective on the values and
beliefs of that era. It delves into significant topics such as feminism,
women's empowerment, social justice, human rights, and cultural identity. Silappadikaram stands as a crucial cultural and
literary artefact, extensively studied in the field of performance studies, and
revered by scholars and readers alike for its enduring significance. It is treated as
a pure literary text that is devoid of any political context or activities
constructed around the politics of the kingdoms in a direct way. However, it
subtly deals with the socio-cultural and political life that can be seen from
Kannagi’s reaction and the Madurai king’s response in admitting the blunder he
committed. "Am I the king? I listened to the words of a goldsmith! / I
alone am the Thief! Through mu error / I have failed to protect the people / Of
the southern kingdom. Let my life crumble in the dust. / He fell
down in a swoon. His great queen / Shuddered in confusion,
and said: / There is no refuge / For a woman who lost her husband.” /
(The Silappadikaram: the Tale of Anklet, tr. Parthasarathy
(2004/1993): 189-190, quoted in Kapoor
(2023):167-168). Then, "When the lord of the Vaigai saw
the dust on her body, / Her dark hair undone, the single anklet / Blazing in
her hand, he lost heart. / Her words Pounded his ears, and he gave his life.” /
(The Silappadikaram: the Tale of Anklet, tr. Parthasarathy
(2004/1993): 190, quoted in Kapoor
(2023):168). The fair and
impartial judgement is being upheld through these lines and the whole text is
configured to prove this point, and the kings of those time had been sensitive
to well-being of the people through their moral and ethical life. It is presented
in three books (kandams), further
divided into stories (kathairs), with each kandam named after the location where the story
takes place, such as Punarkkandam, Maduraikkandam, and Vanchikkandam.
The text comprises twenty-five stories and five song cycles: The love songs of
the seaside grove; The song and dance of the hunters; he round
dance of the herdswomen; The round dance of the hill dwellers; and The
benediction. The inclusion of patikam,
although considered a later addition, holds significance not only for this text
but also for other literary works. It signifies the poetic intent to elucidate
certain truths, such as the consequences faced by even kings if they violate
the law and the commendation of the virtuous wife by great men. It also
underscores the manifestation and fulfillment of
deeds. The poem is named Cilappatikāram, the
epic of the anklet, as the anklet symbolizes the illumination of these truths Adigal (1992), 21. Although the text is considered parallel to Sanskrit
literature, it contains mentions and references to numerous Sanskrit epics,
legends, and puranic texts. In this regard, Zvelebil's
statement is relevant, as he describes Silappadikaram
as the "first literary expression and the first ripe fruit of the
Aryan-Dravidian synthesis in Tamilnadu" Rani
& Shivkumar (2011), 79-99. Silappadikaram holds a significant place in popular
culture, with film adaptations based on its content. Additionally, it has
attained spiritual and religious significance among the people, with Kannagi
being deified and worshipped in many parts of South India. However, the text
possesses contextual relevance from a performance standpoint, necessitating an
in-depth exploration of its contemporary relevance in folk and modern theatre.
This discussion aims to initiate further exploration in this direction. In addition to its rich intertextuality with Sanskrit
literature and its enduring cultural and religious significance, the
performative aspects of Silappadikaram warrant
further examination to fully appreciate its contemporary relevance. The text's
narrative complexity and dramatic elements suggest its potential for adaptation
and reinterpretation in various forms of theatre, both traditional and modern.
By delving into its performative dimensions, scholars and artists can uncover
new layers of meaning and relevance that resonate with contemporary audiences.
Exploring how Silappadikaram is enacted and
experienced on stage can provide valuable insights into its enduring appeal and
relevance in today's cultural landscape. Therefore, while acknowledging its
historical and literary importance, it is crucial to expand our analysis to
encompass its performative aspects, thus paving the way for a deeper
understanding of its continuing impact and significance in both scholarly
discourse and popular culture. Another point that needs to be mentioned about
the text is that though it introduces Madhavi as a central character who had
been trained rigorously in music, dance, and the poem composition, through the
reflection of social attitudes on the artist, the text introduces the twist in
the story. Therefore, Kovalan’s movement towards Madhavi is not accidental
rather it is the narrativization of social attitude towards arts and artists.
However, the text constructs and projects Madhavi not as an ordinary woman
performer, but as a morally upright woman who proves her moral and ethical
character by returning all the wealth of Kovalan stolen by her mother without
the knowledge of either Kovalan or Madhavi. Finally, to the credit of the text apart from the performative elements, it is considered as a secular text when compared to other contemporary texts such as Manimeghalai, Civaka Chinthamani and Vilaiyapathi. Further, the moral or justice the text establishes through the neat description of the story is relevant in the modern context, for instance, “Arasiyal pizhaithorku aramkootru avathum” that reads as for those who have committed injustice in ruling/politics, it is believed that the justice itself will turn as demon of death. Kapoor (2023), 166.
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS None. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS None. REFERENCES Adigal, I. (1992). The Cilappatikāram of Ilanko Adikal: An Epic of South India. New York: Columbia University Press. Balsing, A. M. (2019). Vijay Tendulkar's Ghashiram Kotwal: As A Revenge Tragedy. Literary Endeavour 10 (1), 23-26. Dikshitar, V.R.R. (1939). The Silappadikaram. Humphrey Milford: Oxford University Press. Dikshitar, V.R.R. (1978). The Cilappadikaram. Madras: South India Shaiva Sidhanta Publications Society. Kapoor, R. (2023). The Concept of Justice and Dharma in Cilappathikaram: the Story of Anklet, Vol.-24, 160 -170. Karnad, G. (1997). Hayavadana. Oxford. Mandakranta, B. (2002). Speaking of Dance: The Indian Critique, (New vistas in Indian Performing Arts, No. 3) D.K. Print 2. World. Noble, S. A. (1990). The Tamil Story of the Anklet: Classical and Contemporary Tellings of"Cilappatikaram". Diss. University of Chicago. Parthasarathy, R. (2004/1993). The Cilappatikaram: The Tale of an Anklet. Penguin India. Rakesh, M. (1999). Highway House: A Translation of Ashe Adhure. Worldview Publication. Rani, P., & Shivkumar, V. (2011). "An Epic as a Socio-Political Pamphlet". Portes, 5(9), 79-99. Saraswat, S. (2014). The Quest of Completeness: Mohan Rakesh's Aadhe Adhure. Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 2(9), 86-88. Sharma, P. (2019). Delineation of Domestic Violence: A Study of Vijay Tendulkar's Shakaram Binder. Journal of Advanced and Scholarly Research in Allied Education, 16(1), 394-397. Subramanyam, K. N. (1977). The Anklet Story: Shilappadhikaaram at Ilango Adigal. Delhi: AgamPrakasan. Tendulkar, V. (2009). Ghashiram Kotwal. Seagull Books. Tendulkar, V. (2014). Five Plays. Oxford University Press. Vatsyayan, K. (1968). Classical Indian Dance in Literature and the Arts, Sangeet Natak Akademi. Wadikar, S. B. (2011). Sakharam Binder: Tendulkar's Human Zoo. The Criterion: An International Journal in English 2(1), 1-12.
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