ShodhKosh: Journal of Visual and Performing ArtsISSN (Online): 2582-7472
Seriously Frivolous: A Narrative Review of the Global Effects of Political Humour on Political Sophistication Pratibha Rani 1 1 Ph.D.
Scholar, Department of Mass Communication, Central University of Jharkhand,
India 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Mass Communication, Central University of Jharkhand, India
1. INTRODUCTION Philosophers,
psychologists, and sociologists have long been interested in the possible
functions and effects of humour both at the levels of an individual and society
at large. It was eventually explained through multiple theories that humour
leads to the feeling of sudden glory that made one feel superior to the other Hobbes (1974) as well as it acts as a safety valve useful
in releasing stress or “extra energy and passion” Freud (1905). The experiments were further conducted to
observe the benefits of humour if applied to serious tasks like learning and
the results were found more on the positive side Since then, it
underwent evolution through its multiple formats like political caricatures in
newspapers and journals, political satires on television, and more recently in
the forms of political memes, parody, and podcasts. With the rise in popularity
of political satirical shows or late-night shows, political memes, and viral
videos, especially in western countries, researchers develop an interest to
study political comedy and focused their attention on the possible consequences
of the same. The major reason behind this increased attention was an
inquisitiveness to find its potency to affect the contemporary political
landscape. However, there has been a serious lack of consensus between the
researchers regarding the functions political humour essentially perform as
well as its exact effects on the political engagement or participation of the
audience. Over the years, research seems to contest its conflicting functions
and effects, with some calling it a source of sheer entertainment incompetent
to cause any significant effects on political participation Prior (2003) 2. Research
Approach The current study
aimed to conceptualize the effects of political humour in the contemporary
world. Hence, it employed the method of narrative literature review to examine
the diversity in the approaches through which the implications of political
humour have been studied so far. The available literature has been searched
using various keywords like political humour, political satire, effects/implications
of political humour on Google Scholar, online research database, and major
constructs and variables (both predetermined and emergent) associated with the
same like that of effects on
political knowledge, effects on political expression, implications on political
participation, etc. were
identified. Further, the studies concerning the relationship of each variable
with the consumption of political humour were identified and examined. Out of
more than a hundred results, studies were filtered after going through their
title and abstract on the basis of their relevance to
the current theme and finally, 30 studies were shortlisted for the review. The selected thirty (30) contemporary
available pieces of literature encompass both empirical and theoretical works,
most of which appeared after the year 2000. 3. Findings and
Discussions As per the reviewed literature, the effects
of political satire have been found to be mostly centred around the following five key themes based on
which the discussion of the paper has been arranged, i.e., a) political humour
as a mediator of political knowledge, b) implications on political efficacy and
cynicism, c) political humour and political participation/ engagement, d) persuasive
impacts of political humour, and e) factors influencing the effects of
political humour. Furthermore, the contemporary discussions and debates
pertaining to the effects of political humour tend to have taken into
consideration majorly two platforms, i.e., television and the new media. 3.1. Political Humour as a Mediator of Political Knowledge According to the first major finding of the
study, there seems to have enough discussions regarding the ways in which the
consumption of political humour can be related to
political awareness or the mediation of political knowledge. The emergence of political humour as an integral form of political
communication developed an interest of the researchers as to how much can be
learned about the political happenings or politics in general from such
content. Many studies in this line of concern, claimed either no correlation
between political humour shows and political knowledge
Hollander (1995), McLeod et al. (1996), Prior (2003) or negative implications on the same Parkin et al. (2003). However, other studies demonstrate
positive relation between the two and highlight the potential of the content of
political humour to aware and impart political knowledge to its audience. In the series of researches led by Baum (2002), Baum (2003), Baum (2005), he presented pieces of evidence to prove
that soft news programming can increase political engagement by contributing to
the political learning of the citizen. Baum (2002) suggested that political humour is
conducive to the political engagement of citizens, stressing that they are most
effective in “influencing the attitudes of politically inattentive individual” In a nutshell,
the answer to whether the consumption of political comedy holds the potential
to impart political knowledge seems not to be that black and white and is
likely to rather vary from one study to another. While the current dominant
view agrees with the fact that it does affect the political awareness and
knowledge of the consumers, the nature of political learning through such
platforms still seems to be largely passive. 3.2. Implications on Political Efficacy and Political Cynicism Apart
from affecting the political knowledge of its consumers, the review of the
available literature also reveals that the consumption of the contents of
political humour can also implicate the perspective
(positive or negative) with which an individual sees the government or politics
in general, technically termed as political efficacy and political cynicism. The
concept of political efficacy and political cynicism has been instrumental in
studying political behavior and predicting the political participation of an
individual Abramson and Aldrich (1982). Hence, the investigation regarding
the effects of political humour would have been
incomplete without studying its relationship with these two concepts. Political
efficacy can be defined as “the feeling that political and social change is
possible and that the individual can play a part in bringing about the change” Campbell et al. (1954) p.187).
While internal efficacy reflects the confidence of an individual in himself/
herself in his/her potential/ability to understand politics and participate in
it; external efficacy is the trust of an individual in a political system to
respond to people’s demand Balch (1974).
On the other hand, political cynicism refers to the negative/ skeptical
attitude towards politics and a belief that politicians and political systems
are not qualified enough Dekker et al. (2006), which often leads to alienation
and distrust. Baumgartner (2007) relates the exposure to “The Daily
Show” to political efficacy. The results concluded that while it positively
influences the internal efficacy of the viewers by providing the confidence
that the world of politics is comprehensible; it also tends to negatively
impact their external efficacy as the show sarcastically exposes the
absurdities and vices of the electoral process. Likewise, Hoffman & Young (2011) found that in addition to
traditional TV news, satire, or parody, but not late-night comedy, indirectly
affects political participation through the mediator of efficacy. They Hoffman & Young (2011) imply that the consumption of
satire or parody increases one’s political efficacy which further promotes
him/her to take part in various political activities. Moreover, in an attempt
of finding the correlation between the consumption of political satire and
political cynicism, some researchers discovered that in comparison to
non-consumers of political satirical shows, those who watch them are more
likely to develop political cynicism Guggenheim et al. (2011). It includes a negative attitude
toward politicians and a decrease in trust on the government Tsfati et al. (2009). Besides Hong and Chang (2019) discuss that the viewing frequency
of “Mr. Brown Show” (a Singapore-based political satirical podcast) is directly
proportional to both the internal efficacy and political cynicism of its
audience. This implies that the audience of political satires does obtain
political knowledge from satirical shows that give them a sense of awareness
about the political happenings but more they are exposed to such content, more
they lose trust in the political system. Hong and Chang (2019) also reveal that the viewers of the
show tend to display higher political cynicism than political efficacy. The
reason could be that unlike the dissemination of conventional hard form of
political news on mainstream media that aims to provide unopinionated
information, political satire is rather focused to offer stark criticism of the
political schemes, policies, leaders, and parties that leads to the feeling of
aversion among its audience about the same. Ultimately,
as per the discussion, it can be concluded, that political comedy does have a
considerable amount of influence on both political efficacy and political
cynicism. The fact that both of these concepts are
known to influence the political behavior of people, however, becomes a matter
of concern and further investigation. 3.3. Political Humour and Political Participation: Political Expression, Criticism, and Dissent Vissers & Stolle (2014) define political participation as
“all forms of involvement in which citizens express their political opinion
and/ or convey that opinion to political decision-makers”. Hence, it takes
under its purview all kinds of political expressions like writing and sharing
political posts (reflecting their political opinions) with others, both online
and offline, taking part in political discussions, political meetings, rallies,
demonstrations, and protests. The review of the literature shows ample studies
on the effects of political humour on political
participation that broadly includes discussions at two levels, i.e., regarding
the relationship of political comedy with a) political expression (discussion
and criticism), and b) political activism. There has
also been an apparent association between the concept of the public sphere and
media disposition. Shifman (2014) contends that online memes while
taking place alongside offline political activities contribute to political
movements by acting as an important discursive form of online political
participation that further consolidates the cause. The scholarship examining
the formal relationship between online political humour
and political expression usually includes youths as beneficiaries. Penney (2020) observed that the Facebook meme
page “Bernie Sanders Dank Meme Stash” emerged as a popular form of political
expression as well as a means of discursive political participation for the
youth supporters of Democratic candidates in the 2016 elections. He argued that
this political meme page provided them with a platform to form their communal
identity, connect with like-minded people, collectively promote the campaigns
regarding their political interests and influence the voting decisions of their
peers. Realizing the ability of political comedy to serve as a free space for
democratic discussions, some researchers conceptualize these platforms as a
modern public sphere. Paul
(2017) in his study “A New
Public Sphere? English-Language Stand-Up Comedy in India” discusses the
contribution of English-language stand-up comedy as a modern public sphere
where opinions about social, political, and cultural aspects of local, national,
and international issues are shared and further given feedback in the form of
applause, silence (in case of live performance), likes and subscriptions and
further discussed and debated in the comment section. In another study, in the
context of India, Kumar
(2015) discusses the
significance of three digital forms of political comedy namely memes, parodies
and viral videos, as an effective tool for political commentary. The analysis
of the videos produced by the three newly formed groups in India namely All
India Bakchod (AIB), The Viral Fever (TVF), and The East India
Comedy Club (EICC) reveals that
such videos cover a wide range of social and political issues and serve as an
excellent platform to expose political hypocrisies and other political vices
like corruption. Moreover, Kumar
(2015) associated the political memes with the 2014 Lok Sabha elections and
states that these memes were used to generate various hashtags on Twitter
including “Acche_Din_, Bijli_Bin”
(Good days, without electricity), “Abki_Baar,
Antim_Sanskar” (this time, it’s the funeral/ the
end), that initiated healthy discussions and debate on the political front
while providing the common man to criticize those holding political powers. In
the article “Satire, Elections, and Democratic Politics in Digital India”, Punathambekar (2015) links satirical videos
taking a dig at political leaders like Narendra Modi, Arvind Kejriwal, and
Rahul Gandhi during the 2014 Lok Sabha elections. Punathambekar (2015) contends that the
videos emerged as a “popular mode of engagement with politics”during the elections. He argued that the
political engagement of the audience of such videos is enabled by bringing the
major and long-standing political issues around caste, religion, and
nationalism into contemporary public culture (i.e., social media) in a
non-conservative and engaging fashion. Researches demonstrating the positive effects of online
political humour on the political engagement of its
audience include Lee (2014), who suggested that those who are
exposed to such content online are usually more actively associated with
politics as they are more likely to take part in protests, rallies, and
demonstrations as well as to vote in elections. Hence, they ensure the direct
participation of the audience in politics Lee (2014). Based on the majority of the literature available on the association
between the consumption of political humour and political
participation, it can be assumed that the popular sources of political humour not just inform the public about topical political
happenings but also stimulate them to express themselves. The audience
expresses themselves either by posting on social media, discussing with peers
or sometimes by conducting or taking part in political activities like rallies,
demonstrations, public meetings, etc. 3.4. Persuasive Impacts of Political Humour on Perception of Political Candidates and Public Opinion Another line of investigation in the context of political comedy effects is its implications on the political opinion or perception of political candidates Young (2004), Baum (2005), Becker (2012), Kucera (2015), which explicitly reflects the lack of consensus and varied observations. Baum (2005) presented evidence to demonstrate that the consumption of late-night political satires can influence the perception of political candidates among the politically passive audience. In another study, focused to examine the differential impact of the types of political comedy (other-directed hostile humour & self-directed humour) Becker (2012) concluded that the consumption of political humour indeed has a significant impact on the political attitude of the audience and highlights the negative association between the other-directed hostile humour and evaluation of the political candidate being targeted. Furthermore, the influence of political humour on the perception of political candidates is illustrated by Kucera (2015) who brings to light the relationship between late-night comedy and the political public opinion to determine whether or not late-night humour is capable of creating political impact. Kucera (2015) also attempted to answer if political satires are ethical. Through an experiment on 40 female participants (who watched videos and filled out questionnaires to evaluate if watching humourous videos of presidential candidates (Barack Obama and John McCain) changes their opinion about them; it was concluded that the perception of the participants about the candidates changed after watching videos of the candidates. Also, the political information presented in a humourous way affected participants’ political ideas/awareness. Kucera (2015). However, the ethical aspect of such programming was not that black and white, as on one hand, it seems ethical as showing presidential candidates on late-night shows makes it more transparent for the audience to know the candidates better, while on the other hand, it can be counter-argued by the fact that the show doesn’t disseminate any information about the candidates but just make them more likable. Besides, political comedy also seems to persuade public opinion by setting a public agenda. Boukes (2019) shows that political satire indirectly affects the public agenda by prioritizing certain political issues over the other. The study found that the topics discussed became more important among citizens, media as well as Parliament, after the broadcast of the show. On a
contrary, Young (2004) put forth pieces of evidence to
prove that such jokes didn’t have a significant effect on the perceived notion
of the political candidates during the 2000 US general elections. Rather, Young (2004) argued the role of the level of
political knowledge and partisanship in moderating the influence of satirical
shows on the perception of political candidates. Discussing the same, 3.5. Factors Influencing the Effects of Political Humour A myriad
of studies substantiates that the effects of political comedy are not
consistent and same on every individual consuming them, but rather depend on
certain factors or mediators like political affinity or political partisanship,
perception of the comedian and the programme,
political knowledge as well as political efficacy Wolff et al. (1934), Zillmann & Cantor (1976), Priest (1966), Gregorowicz (2013). The findings of the research
conducted by Wolff et al. (1934) identify the orientation of the
audience toward the comic target as one of such mediators claiming that the
degree of humour experienced affects the level of
association/ affinity towards the object/individual being disparaged. The
argument is further extended by Zillmann & Cantor (1976) who contend that humour appreciation by an individual is inversely
proportional to the degree of affiliation or the positive association s/he has
with the person/group being disparaged. This implies that if a person is
naturally inclined toward a certain person/group (that may include a politician
or a political party when seen in the context of the subject made fun of
through political comedy) he is less likely to appreciate the jokes that target
them or make them inferior in any way. The evidence about the same is also
provided by Priest (1966) wherein, the respondents found the
jokes about political candidates from another political party funnier than on
the candidates of their party. Likewise, the level of prior political knowledge
and interest also serves as an important mediating factor in deciding the
intensity of the effect of political humour.
Emphasizing the role of political attentiveness in determining the implications
of television political satires on the evaluation of political candidates, Baum (2002), in one of his earliest articles on
the effects of political comedy, argues that in comparison to politically
active people, the perception about the election candidates of those who are
politically passive or inattentive are more likely to get influenced by the
television political satire. Besides, Gregorowicz (2013) maintains that among all its
viewers, the influence of political satire tends to be the strongest on people
with moderate prior knowledge. 4. Conclusions The
careful investigation into the contemporary literature on the effects of
political satire majorly reflects research on three (3) cogent lines: a) on the
audience’s political sophistication encompassing effects on political
knowledge, and political efficacy; b) on political participation that includes
political expression, criticism, and activism; and c) the persuasive effects of
political humour. Besides, it also reveals that the discussion on the effects of the same
has been largely centered around satirical television
shows, which is followed by research on the other formats of political comedy
on digital platforms like political memes, parodical videos, and stand-up
comedy of political issues. Although political satire is quite an outmoded format of communication existed since the beginning of mass communication or perhaps before. However, the prediction of McLuhan about “the medium is the message” McLuhan (2012) seems to hold true as the effects of political satire tend to multiply and become more complex to comprehend with the advent of each advanced media, especially the Internet. It also makes sense in a view of a “network society” where the boundaries between the creator and consumer are constantly blurring Castells (2004). However, an observation of the available literature suggests that the implications are not direct and consistent for one and all. In fact, it can be comprehended from the lens of indirect media effects theories like selective perception, selective retention as well as individual difference theory as there are factors or mediators like political partisanship, perception of the comedian and the program, political knowledge as well as prior political efficacy responsible for moderating the influence of these above-mentioned effects. Pieces of evidence from various research suggest that despite being frivolous, political humour in the contemporary era is not merely characterized by its ability to entertain but also seems to cause mixed (both positive and negative) implications. Firstly, the consumption of political humour does affect the political awareness of their viewers, but the quality of such knowledge is rather superficial. The very fact seems to pose threat to democracy as half knowledge is worse than ignorance. Furthermore, political humour also seems to be directly proportional to both internal efficacy and political cynicism which implies that although the various means of political humour increase people’s confidence in their ability to understand politics, they also are somewhere responsible for an increase in the negative outlook towards the government and its potency. This raises a concern about the clandestine capabilities of such platforms to develop reluctance among citizens to participate and contribute to political practices. The concern however tends to be contradicted to some extent, by the dominant observation regarding its effects on the overall political participation of the audience that suggests the consumption of political comedy paves way for passive activism as it stimulates an urge to express one’s political opinion, either on social media by discussing it among peers and sometimes by taking part in the political activities Bromberg (2013). However, as far as public opinion is concerned, despite a lack of consensus on the direct implications, the contents of political humour are argued to influence the way political candidates are perceived. Besides, this also clears the stance of political comedians as “opinion leaders” Katz (2015) who seem to be influencing the political notions of their consumers and are equally capable to serve their hidden agendas by highlighting certain issues while hiding or avoiding others McCombs & Shaw (1972), Boukes (2019). Also, studies around political humour is more common and present in abundance in the context of western countries. While Asian countries are beginning to catch up with the trend, the scholarship pertaining to the power of political humour, especially the ones disseminated by the new media can still be considered to be in a nascent phase. In India, in the last two decades, the studies about political satire are usually conceptual in nature like the works of Punathambekar (2015), Kumar (2015), and Paul (2017) in which Kulkarni (2017) adds to the occasional empirical studies on the subject. The effects discussed in these researches are predominantly at the cognitive level that is only useful in the development of a working hypothesis. This exposes a major research gap concerning the studies of political humour in Asian countries, especially in India. Therefore, the accumulated conceptual works of knowledge of political humour along with the present study can be utilized for further investigation of the feasibility of the proposed hypothesis. Finally, based on the review of the present scholarship concerning political humour, the phenomenon of political humour can be deemed as a double-edged sword. On one hand, it positively contributes to the sound functioning of the nation, especially democratic ones by increasing political awareness and enhancing political activeness, while on the other, it also posits serious concerns, provided the persuading effects that hold the potential to hinder fair political practices.
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