ShodhKosh: Journal of Visual and Performing ArtsISSN (Online): 2582-7472
Historic Indian Textiles of Gold and Silver Radhana Raheja 1 1 Ph.D.
Scholar, Department of Home Science, Lady Irwin College, University of Delhi,
New Delhi, India 2 Professor,
Department of Home Science, Lady Irwin College, University of Delhi, New Delhi,
India
1. INTRODUCTION Metals have been a part of the earth since its creation. Birthed from the planet itself, each element has its own properties. Upon contact of these metals with humans, and the subsequent discovery of their properties, metals became a useful component in the human existence. Certain metals are classified as base metals, forming an important group containing elements such as copper, tin, iron, lead, mercury etc. as important as they are, they present limited use, either due to their nature of being extremely brittle, soft, or hard, or are adversely affected by contact with acids and alkalis. Then there are the precious metals, including gold and silver, metals which are not only rare to find, but their superior qualities combined with resistance to degradations such as corrosion, and high malleability have resulted in their use in a vast majority of fields (Coombs (1981), 14-17). From the first contact that humans had with gold from around 5000 BC, this precious metal seeped into all realms of human existence such as political, scientific, economic, artistic, and even spiritual (Venable (2011), xvii). Second to gold is silver, its only limitation being the formation of tarnish, however upon polishing the tarnished layer can be removed to reveal the original metal. Else, silver too shares the properties of malleability and ductility and the versatility that arises with these properties, with gold (Coombs (1981), 110). 1.1.
GOLD, SILVER, AND AYURVEDA Upon the exploration and experimentation with the properties of gold and silver it was found that these precious metals possess medicinal value as well. These metals have not only been used extensively by alchemists around the world, but also in Indian alternative medicine system of Ayurveda. This medicine system dating back to at least 5000 BC, works with drugs derived from plant, animal, metal, and mineral sources (Galib et al. (2011), 55). Of the metals used, gold and silver too are a part of this medicine system. Gold, referred to as ‘Swarna’ is known to be one of the most valuable elements in Ayurveda, identified to cure nearly all diseases and for the general wellbeing of the human body by increasing memory and energy levels. Silver, referred to as ‘Rajata’ is also used for therapeutics, known to lengthen life and has applications in various chronic diseases (Wise (1989), 88-89). With significance of healing associated with these metals accompanied with their intrinsic physical properties and rarity, gold and silver created a niche of their own. 1.2. PRECIOUS
METALS IN ARTS The malleability, ductility and sheen of these metals found their place in artistic ventures as well. The high value of these metals, especially gold, were used for reinforcement of power, prestige, social standing, exclusivity, luxury and most importantly royalty. With the flourishing of art and culture the use of these precious metals in decorative arts was a natural progression. The use of gold jewelry by the Egyptians is a popular example, displaying not only the exquisite craftsmanship achieved but also the love for precious metals. Gradually, with the increased explorations and experimentation with gold and silver, these metals were molded into various forms such as beads, pellets, sheets, leaf etc. which added to the variety of their uses. 1.3. GOLD AND
SILVER IN INDIAN TEXTILES Clothing may have been borne out of necessity for the human race, however with the passing years, experimentation with styles of fabric production has led to the development of a variety of techniques, leading to the manufacturing of unique and exquisite textiles. Decorations and embellishments of fabric soon became a sign of celebration and a means to showcase one’s prosperity. The ductility of specifically gold and silver along with their royal look, made them the most sort after metals to be incorporated in textiles. While the use of metal fibres in textiles predates recorded history, it was during the Mughal Era in India that textile production as a meticulously practiced craft flourished immensely. The detailed records of Ain-i-Akbari displayed the extravagant use of gold and silver embellished textiles for the court, nobility, and commercial elite (Dey (2015)). 2. CLASSIFICATION
OF INDIAN TEXTILES CONTAINING GOLD AND SILVER The following classification is based on the technique used to incorporate precious metals in textiles. Most of the Indian textiles gained their nomenclature because of the region that they belong to, however if classified with respect to technique, more than one form would fall in the same category. At the same time, due to the variations introduced by regional adaptations, minor technical differences will also put certain similar textiles in separate categories. Simply put, the primary basis for classification is the technique employed in producing a complete fabric. There are four categories based on which the use of gold and silver in Indian textiles have been classified i.e., Woven, Embroidered, Printed and Painted. An important point needs to make here regarding painted textiles. There are no painted Indian textiles which are made entirely of gold and silver; rather they are utilized to accentuate and enhance the textile, thus, the textiles mentioned in that category do not exclusively use gold and silver for their production. Plate 1
Figure 1
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Figure 4
Figure 5
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Figure 7
Figure 8
Figure 9
Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure 12
Figure 13
Figure 14
Figure 15
Figure 16
Figure 17
Figure 18
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Figure 20
Figure 21
2.1.
WOVEN TEXTILES In woven textiles, the gold and silver are incorporated into the textile by means of interlacement with the fibre used. The form in which gold and/or silver is incorporated may differ, however the use of metal is during the process of weaving on the loom. The main forms in which these metals are used in the weaving process are: 1) Flat wire – also known as Badla, flat metallic wires are flattened metal strips of either gold or silver. For woven textiles, they are either used as is, or wound on a core of yarns of silk or cotton to create zari threads. 2) Gilded metal thread- indigenously known as zari threads, these were traditionally gilded silver flat wires wrapped around a core of yarns (Singhal and Bhagat (2017), 20). 2.1.1.
BROCADES Brocade weaving refers to the development of a pattern, independent of the foundation weave. It is specific to the use of silk with gold and/or silver zari threads. The term brocade is a derivative of the Latin word brocare which means to prick, suggesting needle work. This has earned the brocaded fabric the phrase loom embroidery (Agrawal (2003), 55). Another root of word brocade is considered to be “broach”, meaning to stab or transfix, referring to the supplementary weft threads used to create the design (Watt (1903), 319). Brocades do not traditionally refer to fabrics only containing gold and silver along with silk, however, over the years, the word has become synonymous with fabrics containing zari threads. Sir George Watt described the brocades containing metal threads along with silk as kinkhabs. He further provided a classification of kinkhabs as follows: Pure cloth of gold and silver- this refers to the maximum amount of the fabric being covered with metal threads 1) Kinkhabs proper- as seen in Plate 1 Figure 1, greater portion of the fabric is covered with gold or silver, whereby silk is visible only in minute areas. 2) Baftas or pot-thans- closely woven silk with only certain sections of the design in metal thread as visible in Plate 1 Figure 2. 3) Abrawans: these include either silk gauze or muslins with certain portions of the design or borders of metal threads (Watt (1903), 321, 297-299). Plate 1 Figure 3 depicts this characteristic feature of Abrawans. 2.1.2.
KANCHIPURAM Many textiles across India are named after the region in which they originated or were most commonly practiced in, and Kanchipuram is no exception. Mainly woven as a saree, this fabric belongs to the town of Kanchipuram near Chennai in the state of Tamil Nadu. Woven from pure mulberry silk and zari threads, Kanchipuram too is a fabric woven with supplementary weft threads, just like Brocades (Plate 1 Figure 4). While the technique may be similar, the main difference between Brocades and Kanchipuram is that in Kanchipuram the border is woven separately and later interlocked with the body of the fabric (Mahapatra (2016), 86-92). 2.1.3.
PAITHANI Paithani refers to the saree woven in the region of Paithan, Aurangabad. While Paithani weaving too employs zari threads, as seen in Plate 1 Figure 5, the difference lies in the fact that there is no use of supplementary weft threads. The fabric consists of a plain weave where the weft is responsible for creating the design, following the principle of tapestry. Traditionally, metal threads were used with a cotton base, however over the years the fabric now employs a silk base (Mahapatra (2016), 123-130). 2.1.4.
KODALIKARAPPUR Now a lost art of Tanjore, the Kodalikarappur was a technique whereby rather than the motifs, the background of the fabric was woven in gold threads (Plate 1 Figure 6). The designs were made using wax. The empty spaces were coloured either by block printing, resist printing or a combination of both the techniques. The fabric was then dyed, revealing a coloured motif and a gold woven background, reflecting a tint of the colour of the dye used (Watt (1903), 266). 2.1.5.
CHANDERI Owing its name to the town of Chanderi in Madhya Pradesh, these silk gauze textiles woven in the form of sarees are sheer fabrics with borders, particularly motifs, woven in metal threads of gold or silver (Dongerkery (1950), 61). The base of the fabric is plain woven. Either a dobby or a jacquard loom is used, with the motifs woven using the supplementary weft technique of weaving. The fibres used for weaving chanderi may be silk, and more recently cotton, with the fabric being one of the more contemporary ones, with its production dating back to second half of 20th century (Mahapatra (2016), 38-43). Plate 1 Figure 7 shows a woven Chanderi saree. 2.1.6.
TISSUE The tissue fabric, also referred to as Taash fabric, is a plain-woven fabric, either in cotton or silk whereby the warp or weft, depending upon the ease, is of gold/silver flat wires known as badla as seen in Plate 1 Figure 8. Unlike brocaded fabrics which use zari, tissue fabric uses flat strips of metal. It is also referred to as cloth of gold and silver (Watson (1866), 113). If the tissue fabric is made from gold it is called soniri, and if made using silver metal strips, it is called ruperi (Darwin (1895), 2840). The old city of Pactun near the Godavery river had been a popular center for manufacturing such fabric. Turbans, dupattas, and long shawls were common garments made from this tissue. It is important to note that the gold used is silver flat wire coated with gold metal (Anonymous. (1855), 556). 2.1.7.
LACE AND TRIMMINGS Lace as is understood in the European context, differs from its connotation in the Indian aspect. With the adaptation of the term lace to Lais, lace uses silk threads in the warp direction, and gold or silver wire for the weft or vice versa (Mukhopādhyāẏa (1888), 363). Kalabattun may also be used in place of, or along with the metal wire for the construction of lace (Watt (1903), 422). The most common form of trimming made is Gota (Plate 1 Figure 9). It is considered as a narrow border made by using badla in the warp direction and silk threads in the weft direction. Other local names are used to describe trimmings of various widths and patterns; however, the technique of manufacturing remains the same. With dhanak being the narrowest trimming and anchal being the widest trimming, intermediate width trimmings include lachka, patri, bankri, kiran etc. (Mukhopādhyāẏa (1888), 363). 2.2. EMBROIDERED
TEXTILES This category includes textiles in which gold and silver are not a part of process of weaving, but in fact once the fabric has been woven, surface application in the form of embellishments comprise this category. Gold and silver are used in various other forms and applied on the textile using a plethora of stitching techniques. 2.2.1.
ZARDOZI Zardozi refers to the embroideries of gold and silver on a textile. It is derived from the Persian words zar, meaning gold and dozi meaning embroidery, with its first usage being in the 14th century. Some of the popular centers across India included Lucknow, Agra, and Delhi where this art flourished. Using a Karchob, a wooden frame on which the fabric is stretched, and an aari needle, the metal components were sewn onto the fabric (Bhandari (2015), 45). Plate 1 Figure 10 shows a zari embroidered fabric using various metal components. Zardozi employed the maximum variety of gold and silver decorations which includes: ·
Badla - This is a simple flat metallic wire ·
Zari thread - Zari thread
refers to a set of core yarns wound with a flat metallic wire. Depending upon
the thickness and shine, zari threads can be
of the types kasab (thinner zari), kalabattu
(thicker zari) and chikna
(shinier zari). ·
Chakri - a round metal with a hole in
the center is called chakri ·
Sitara - Circular shaped spangles
which look like stars and have a hole in the center ·
Katori - A spangle with a curved surface, like a tiny cup is
referred to as katori ·
Salma - When a fine, soft unflattened wire is wound spirally, with no thread running
through the center. It can be of the following forms: ·
Dabka - A form of coiled wire with the surface being flattened,
making it shinier than kora ·
Kora - A heavier form of dabka which looks ‘something like gold vermicelli’ ·
Nakshi/Chalak/Chaupahal - similar to
dabka, nakshi
is a coiled flat metallic wire, however in an angular manner ·
Gijai/Kangni – a circular wire of metal
which is thicker and thus stiffer than the previously coiled wires ·
Gokhru- two flat metallic wires are twisted together and then bent
at regular intervals (Charles (1905), 17, Gupta (1996) 73-74, Indian Zari Embroidery (2017)) 2.2.2.
GOTA WORK Flat metallic wires known as badla are used to weave borders in either plain, satin or twill weave. The metal wire runs in the warp direction, and traditionally cotton was used in the weft. These woven ribbons are known as gota (Bhandari (2015)). Plate 1 Figure 11 depicts a gota trimming. When gota is cut into shapes are sewn onto the fabric in various designs, it is known as gota kinari. When only cut gota pieces are sewn onto the fabric, it is known as the folk style of gota work, and when additional metal components such as sitaras, salmas etc. are used along with the gota pieces, it is known as the classic style of gota work (Naik, (1996), 122, 144). This form of applique work had Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, and Andhra Pradesh as popular centers. These ribbons are locally known as lappa (broad gota) or lappi (thinner gota) thus this work is also known as lappe-ka-kaam (Bhandari (2015)). 2.2.3. VASLI WORK Vasli work refers use of the application of a backing onto the fabric, upon which the metal components are embroidered, as seen in Plate 1 Figure 12. It may be flat or raised, based on the type of material used for backing. In case of flat embroidery, thin calligraphy paper is applied. In the case of raised vasli work, the backing may be of wads of cotton, woolen threads, foam of buckram upon which metal components are couched. This form is known as dhok-ka-kaam or bharat kaam (Bhandari (2015), 69-76). The embroidery is performed on a karchob, and the metal components couched on the backing vary from the use of zari threads to other forms of metal wires such as salmas and sitaras. 2.2.4. KAMDANI WORK While zardozi incorporates heavier embroideries, kamdani refers to lighter embroideries on muslin using metal wires done on a karchob (Watt (1903), 370). Plate 1 Figure 13 displays this lighter kamdani embroidery. Most popular in Rajasthan, the metal wire is thread into the needle and worked into the cotton fabric (Bhandari (2015)). Badla is treated as a thread, using a needle the wire goes in and out of the fabric, while using satin stitches to fill the design spaces (Saiqa and Kale (2012), 34). Evidences of kamdani work trace back to at least as far back as the 1885 exhibition held at Lucknow (Anonymous (1885)), with historic literature tracing its roots to the time of Noor Jahan, wife of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir (Saiqa and Kale (2012), 33). 2.2.5.
MUKAISH A form of embroidery work also popular in the regions
Awadh, just like kamdani,
mukaish work too employs flat metallic wire badla. However, the difference is the technique in
which the wire is incorporated into the fabric as seen in Plate 1 Figure 14. Short lengths of wire
are wrapped around a few warps and wefts of the fabric, creating dotted
pattern. This work is also known as fardi-ka-kaam. Fard translates
to ‘length of the fabric’ and since this embroidery was done on the entire
length of the fabric, Mukaish work is also
known as Fardi-ka-kaam (Saiqa and Kale (2012), 35). 2.2.6. MUKKA WORK Widely practiced in regions of Barmer and Jaisalmer of Rajasthan, also known as Mukke-ka-kaam, Mukka work involves couching gold and silver zari threads with a cotton core, usually on double layered bright coloured cotton fabrics. Mukka is the local term given to the metal threads used. This kind of an embroidery does not use a frame for laying the threads on the fabric. For embroidering the metal threads on the fabric, double layered zari threads are couched using cotton threads, for filling as well as outlining the pattern, seen from Plate 1 Figure 15 (Ojha and Kashyap (2013), 2). 2.2.7. DORI WORK In Dori work, gold, or silver braids, known as dori, are couched on the fabric. The embroiderer loosely lays the braid on the fabric, and secured in place with a thread looping on the braid in the form of a couching stitch. Plate 1 Figure 16 portrays how the braid is turned at angles and, couched in place. The process continues till the required pattern is achieved (Watt (1903), 412). Known to have existed from at least the 1850s, this work is more commonly found on shawls, pashminas, chogas etc., with Kashmir being a popular center of production. However, this art was practiced in other regions of India as well such as Amritsar and Ludhiana (Watt (1903), 412). This form of embroidery does not necessarily involve the use of a karchob (Walker (1884), 159). 2.2.8. TILLA WORK Also known as Marori work (Chattopadhyaya (1977), 62), this type of embroidery involves the use of either the flat metallic wire badla, or gold and silver threads which are twisted and then couched on the fabric (Bhandari (2015)). The twisted threads are stitched according to the design, covering the maximum surface of the fabric (Naik (1996), 136). A traditional craft of Kashmir, it is practiced in other parts of western India (Bhandari (2015)). 2.2.9. DANKA WORK A form of embroidery practiced exclusively in Udaipur,
Rajasthan, Danka work is a form of embroidery whereby the fabric is
stretched on a frame, i.e., a karchob and
embroidered with danka. Locally known as Danke-ka-kaam, this
embroidery involves affixing Danka, small hand beaten square plates made
of either pure gold-, or gold-plated silver with size not exceeding 1.5 cm, on
the fabric, with zardozi work around it (Kashyap
et al. (2012), 49). Oral history dates back this art
form to the 16th century and continues to be practiced in Udaipur by the Bohra
Muslim Community (Anonymous. (2016)). 2.3. PRINTED
TEXTILES With respect to the use of gold and silver, printed textiles refer to the application of these precious metals on the surface of a constructed fabric, adhering it to the textile with the use of a binding medium. 2.3.1. TINSEL PRINTING The official catalogue of the 1903 Delhi Art Exhibition describes tinsel printing as a process whereby the fabric is first block printed with an adhesive substance, over which gold and silver in various forms is pressed against the adhesive printed pattern. The adhesive may be lime based, roghan paste, lac or any other gum (Watt (1903), 268). A popular art form of Rajasthan, particularly Udaipur and Jaipur, based on the form of gold and/or silver used, tinsel printing can be of these types: 1) Warak printing Warak printing is a process whereby the fabric is block printed with a printing paste, and thin metal leaf known as warak is applied on the printing paste once it has semi-dried. (Watt (1903), 268). Once the printing paste dries, the metal leaf is burnished with an agate stone to smoothen the surface (Mathur (1994), 52). 2) Flock
printing Locally known as chamki printing, flock printing involves printing the fabric with roghan paste and sprinkling crushed pieces of gold and silver leaf (Mathur (1994), 52). This printing is also locally called khari printing, whereby the more modern version uses fine crushed mica (Bhandari (2015)). 2.3.2. TANJORE PAINTING Belonging to Tanjore, a city in the southern Indian state of Tamil Nadu, Tanjore painting dates back to 1600 AD. Tanjore paintings are mainly “panel paintings done on solid wood planks” however, cotton fabric is used as a layer on the wood, thus technically making it a painting done on textile. After preparing the wooden and cardboard base, cotton fabric is stretched and held in place with an indigenous gum. Upon application of the fabric with a paste of tamarind seed powder and chalk powder, and smoothened with emery paper, the design is painted on the textile. While gold paint is used for outlining of designs, it is gold leaf which gives these paintings its significant feature. A molding paste made from various materials including gold paint is used to create relief work. Gold foil is then backed with glue and applied on this embossed area and pressed down using a pointed edge (Baral and H (n.d.)). 2.4. PAINTED
TEXTILES Most common examples of painted textiles include various temple hangings such as Pichhavai, Jain Pata, Phadas, Panchangas and Thangkas. While the paintings are made for different purposes and used by different religions, their technique of paintings remains mostly similar. Unbleached cloth is primed with natural materials such as clay and starch, pores filled, and the fabric prepared for painting of the design. Traditional pigments for various colours were adopted, and as previously mentioned, in addition to coloured pigments, powdered gold and silver were used to accentuate the design (Talwar and Krishna (1979)). 3. CONCLUSION Precious metals have gained a reputation of being superior to other metals. This can be attributed to not only their intrinsic properties of being beneficial to the human body, but also due to their physical properties of high ductility, malleability, and unmatchable sheen. The unique properties of especially gold and silver has forever intrigued mankind, and this curiosity has led to the adaption of these metals in various forms to be used and adorned by humans. One such area which saw extensive use of these metals in various forms was textiles. the experimentation to convert gold and silver into various forms for their application in fabrics led to the invention of numerous techniques of fabric production involving the incorporation of these metals. The method in they can used applied or involved in fabric making process can majorly be either during the process of construction such as in woven textiles, or after fabric production as surface application, as in the case of embroidered, printed, and painted textiles. whatever the method adopted, each technique produced out of these methods has created exquisite textiles, visually and technically unique. A testament to the quality, rarity, and dexterity of the artisans is the objects that exist in museum collections all over India, and even the world, with some textile forms now even considered as languishing crafts of India.
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